Saturday, August 31, 2019

Drama Analysis essay: The Death of a Salesman Essay

Linda Loman in the novel, Death of a Salesman, is strong woman who sacrificed her job for the happiness and success of her husband and family. The paper will explain how Linda played an important role in the lives of her husband and sons. The character of Linda Loman in Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman is a source of strength for many people. A heart and soul of the Loman household, Linda is a woman torn between guiltiness, vengeance and misfortune. Although the novel gives a very bleak view of women, the Linda’s character shows how a woman can give strength to a man. Linda’s guiltiness can be seen from the fact that she prevented her husband, Willy Loman, from chasing his true American dream. Linda reacted in response to Willy’s failure and becomes apologetic for him, for the reason that Willy is a â€Å"pitiful lone adventurer of the road† (Miller 47) Throughout the novel Linda is seen as source of encouragement for Willy and never accepted defeat before him. When Linda first appeared in the novel, she is portrayed as a woman who always obeys orders of her husband. Linda accepted Willy’s actions and his unexpected behaviors. In the beginning of the novel, even when Linda did not enter into the play, Authur Miller gave an impression that she is a victim. (Miller 12) It seems that Linda is either terrified by the Willy’s attitude or worried about his weaknesses. For many people Linda’s interference in the financial matters of Willy shows her greed. But many others see it differently. They argue that Linda was very conscious about the success of Willy and the financial health of their family. Linda played an important role in easing tension in the family, especially between Willy and his sons. And this shows her kindness. As Willy finds himself in confusion because of his clashes with his sons on many issues despite the fact that he loves them very much, Linda gives him solutions. She tells Willy that their son Biff is sad and disappointed. She said Biff is trying to find himself. â€Å"He’s crestfallen†¦ if he finds himself, then you’ll both be happier† (Miller 15). Linda who surrenders her own joy for the happiness of her husband has loyalty for him. She blames herself for every unkind things Willy do to her. She has become so familiar to the mental abuse freely dished out by her husband that she has come to consider it acceptable behavior and rationalize it by telling herself that she is not worthy of good treatment. Willy has no respect for Linda. He snaps at Linda when she makes harmless comments. He insulted her on many occasion. â€Å"Stop interrupting! † (64), â€Å"Will you let me talk? † (64), and â€Å"Will you let me finish, woman? † (Miller 67). But what shows the strength of Linda is that she comes to defend Willy when their sons try to offend him. She is still nice with her husband and tells the boys to make Willy happy. For many critics it is evident that Linda has become so desensitized by Willy’s comments over the years that they have become almost common nature to her. But some critics see it differently and termed it Linda’s strength. They argue that Linda is ready to tolerate all these things for the sake of her family’s unification and for success of her husband. Despite the fact that the sons do not like their father, Linda on many occasions in the novel is seemed trying to assure Willy of his importance. â€Å"And the boys, Willy. Few men are idolized by their children the way you are. † (Miller 37). For improving the confidence of Willy, Linda gives him the impression that their sons have great respect for their father. In this way she compels herself to live a life that she knows is not factual. Many people believe that this is the strength of Linda’s character because she tells lie to comfort a broken heart. Even after the death of Willy, Linda’s respect for her husband does not come to an end. Although by killing himself Willy left Linda without a source of income, Linda blames herself for Willy’s death and while standing on his grave she says â€Å"forgive me, dear† (Miller 139). During all the years of their marriage, Linda remains a victim of Willy’s bad behavior. But her only aim was to serve Willy. She did everything to make him happy in his life although she knew that she would get only bad behavior in return. In conclusion, it can be said that Linda was a strong woman because she tolerated all bad things for the success of her family. Linda never lived just only a single day of her married life for herself. Her entire focus always remained on the happiness and success of her husband. Willy was undeserving of all the support his wife showed him. But, Linda remained loyal and was quick to forget all the disappointing things done by Willy. While selflessness and forgiveness are good things, Linda become too extreme by destroying her own life, just to keep her unworthy husband happy. Works Cited Miller, Arthur. The Death of a Salesman Cardullo, Bert. Death of a Salesman and Death of a Salesman: The Swollen Legacy of Arthur Miller. Available at: http://www. columbia. edu/cu/cjas/june_miller. html

Friday, August 30, 2019

Employees training and development of hrm will influence the performance of an organization.

1. IntroductionNoe ( 2005 ) states that â€Å"Training and development is including activities that help cultivate employees ‘ accomplishments, cognition, and abilities. Trained employees have competences to run into the current and future demands of organisation. Through the preparation and intercession steps, the human resources sections help organisations to set up a high-performing, active and engaged workforce† . In the concern universe, preparation and development refers to back up internal human resource efficiency of excess surveies instruction and better the procedure in an organisation. Due to the preparation and development inseparable, these two words are by and large used to specify employee with each other in continuously better to accomplish a series of organisational ends. If without preparation and development plans, organisation may non be able to recognize their full potency. In most organisations, developing and development undertaking is to cover with human resource direction forces. This relationship depends on everybody ‘s communicating, cooperation and clear set of occupation accomplishments as defined by occupation descriptions among all degrees of the organisation. When an organisation ‘s values can do employees eager to accomplish their ends, so employee development program can be implemented to do this sort of circumstance occurrence ( Neo, 2005 ) . The intent of this assignment is speaking about how employees developing and development of HRM will act upon the public presentation of an organisation. I am traveling to happen out some groundss, provide literature reappraisals and through analysis to present how preparation and development influence organisational public presentation.2. Research QuestionThis assignment subject describes that how the employees preparation and development of HRM will act upon the public presentation of an organization.Training and development are of import constituents of human resource. This is a procedure in which the possible endowments and accomplishments of employees are honed and polished. The employees are trained on both the proficient facets of their occupations and on interpersonal accomplishments. This subject Lashkar-e-Taiba people cognize the employees preparation and development of importance in the human resource direction and what relationship between preparation development and public presentation of organisation is.3. Importance of StudyTraining and development is construction to assist employees to develop their personal and organisational accomplishments, cognition and the abilities. For all facets of human resource development, particularly, the most superior work force is the development, so that their organisations and single employees can make the work ends for client service. All employees want to be valuable at any times in the competitory labour market. This is merely manner can be achieved through staff preparation and development. All employees want to be valuable at any times in the competitory labour market. This is merely manner can be achieved through staff preparation and development. Employees ever want to for bettering career-enhancing accomplishments, which will ever take to the enthusiasm and keeping of the employees. there is no uncertainty that a good preparation and development employees will be a valuable plus to the organisation and Thus increasing chances of efficiency in executing his responsibilities ( Tobby,2011 ) . Training can be chiefly of two types in an organisation: Internal and external preparation class. When preparation is the internal preparation, it is including that organisation ‘s internal hour section or preparation section is utilizing a senior staff or any outstanding staff in specific sectors as a resource individual. On the other manus external preparation usually conducted outside the company, chiefly is organized preparation establishments or adviser. No affair which preparation, it is important for all staff and aid in constructing calling placement and readying of staff for greater challenges ( Tobby,2011 ) . The employer should enable staff to prosecute work preparation and development in a way that they choose and are interested in, non merely in assigned specific way. The organisations should back up the acquisition, in general, and non merely in support of the current cognition workers needed for the occupation or following expected. It should be noted that the cardinal factor is to guarantee employees engaged in the involvement of, go toing, and motivated and retained ( Adiele, 2009 ) . For every employee to execute good particularly directors or supervisors, there is demand for continued preparation and development. The right staff preparation, development and instruction offer large net income for the employer to the increased productiveness, cognition, trueness, and part to common growing of the organisation. In most instances, external preparation for the participants of the illustration provides a new manner to run into people in the same field and web. The meeting will give them a opportunity to compare jobs, happen out what is to obtain the other side environment. It decidedly will present positive alterations where necessary ( Adiele, 2009 ) .4. Literature Reappraisal4.1 background informationNoe ( 2005 ) states that â€Å"Traditionally, developing and development was non considered as an activity that could assist organisations to make â€Å"value† and cover with competitory challenges successfully. Nowadays, that position changed. Organizations use advanced preparation and development plans is likely to describe better fiscal public presentation than their challengers that non make. Training and development besides helps a company to run into competitory challenges. For case, as organisations tried to set new merchandises to market and adjust services just-in-time, employees need developing and cognition required every bit shortly as possible delivery.† At present, preparation and development dramas an of import function in assisting organisations run into some challenges. Therefore, organisations need to develop employees to work with individuals from different civilizations both in domestic and foreign people. If the preparation such as Web and multimedia, these new engineerings will cut down the costs associated with conveying employees to a cardinal location for preparation. In homology, these developing methods include the necessary conditions ( feedback, pattern, etc ) for larning to happen. Due to the development of the cyberspace, e-commerce has exploded on the concern scene. Organizations have already recognized that preparation and development activities can accommodate to the Internet, cut downing costs and increasing their effectivity, ensuing in the development of electronic acquisition ( Neo, 2005 ) . Training consequence has expanded beyond developing plan design. Effective instructional preparation is still of import, but more and more preparation directors, human resource experts and developing staff have been asked to make systems to actuate employees to larn, portion that cognition with other employees in the organisation. Training has moved from an accent on a erstwhile event to the creative activity of conditions for larning that can happen through coaction, online acquisition, traditional schoolroom preparation, or a combination of methods. There is increased acknowledgment that larning occurs without a formal preparation class ( Neo, 2005 ) .4.2 Key point 1 Better public presentation of the employeesTraining is a procedure of acquisition every bit good as the application of acquired cognition taking at better public presentation of the employees, while development involves non merely in relation to the procedure, but besides related to assist employees in set uping their personality, at the same clip as, better their advancement to recognize their full potencies. Training and development plans bring a immense alteration in footings of cognition, attitudes and behaviour of employees. Because of these plans, the employees are non merely familiar with what is expected of them and how they need to heighten their accomplishments and abilities, but besides it is a manner to finish the full organisation development, effectivity and efficiency in a coveted mode. The major advantages of Training and development plans are the employees who are non trained need more supervising than those who are trained.An employee will additions new cognition, accomplishments and attitudes and applies them in their work situations.Training is a sort of method to construct up assurance among the employees, so that they do n't hold any obstructor to run their undertakings. The intent of this plan is to salvage money, because the organisation is likely to bear heavy outgo on engaging new employees.This is besides one of the best ways to spread out the span of direction.4.3 Key point 2 Benefits for both the organisation and employeesThe benefits of Training are intangible and it is good for both sides that the organisation and employees for long-run investing in preparation. Training enhances the employees ‘ degree of accomplishments. It provides sense of satisfaction ; this is a sort of interior motive. The preparation besides provides a assortment of Sill ss employees. Training increases the employees ‘ committedness to their occupation and their organisation. It is better understanding of occupations reduces accidents ( Ansar, 2009 ) . The one of the most of import benefits of an organisational preparation is that it provides accomplishments within the organisation to cut down comprehensive cost of the organisational operations. Quality is one of the cardinal factors needed for endurance of an organisation in long term involvements. Entire Quality Management ( TQM ) and other quality direction techniques require employees ‘ preparation as an of import necessity for its successful execution ( Ansar, 2009 ) .4.4 Key point 3 Competitive leadTo accomplish competitory advantage from the organisational preparation and development, preparation and development section aid take insufficient or public presentation lacks in employee. It is peculiarly true when – ( 1 ) the lack is caused by a deficiency of ability instead than a deficiency of motive to execute, ( 2 ) the person ( s ) involved have the aptitude and motive demand to larn how to make the occupation better, and ( 3 ) supervisors and equals are supportive of the coveted behaviours ( Kumar, 2011 ) . An organisational preparation and development wages dividends to the employee and the organisation. Although there are no individual preparation plan benefits, the organisation committed to better its preparation and development to heighten its human resource capablenesss and strengthens its competitory advantages. Meanwhile, the employee ‘s personal and calling ends are furthered, by and large adding to his abilities and value to the employer. Ultimately, the aims of the human resource section are besides furthered ( Kumar, 2011 ) .4.5 Summary of Literature ReviewTraining and development is a really perfect manner to better the fight of an organisation. It besides enhances the employees ‘ accomplishments, abilities and many other facets. Actually, both of employees and organisation obtain the benefits. Training and development plan is one of the best ways to spread out the span of direction. It is besides to salvage money for organisation.5. Analysis5.1 Analysis for poin t1Well-trained, skilled employees are far better than those without preparation, and they have better calling ‘s chances. They will go competent and execute their assigned undertaking independently. For illustration, one time an untrained employee asked his friend who was trained, â€Å"I do n't believe developing plan is of any value. After all what you learn by it? † He replied, â€Å"We are trained even how to inquire inquiries and the art of effectual communicating which you seem to be lacking.†In fact, it ‘s interesting illustration, but it reveals the fact as preparation is covered all necessary accomplishments of the employees required in the workplace while actuating them to work in a coveted and capable manner ( zeromillion.com, 2011 ) . Internal preparation provides the accurate placement and demand with satisfaction of those demands so interwoven into current procedures and work flow. When a new job or facet of work is identified, developing and development provides prompt development of the employee accomplishments needed to get the hang this procedure. Besides that, the preparation and development gives instructional staff chance for immediate rectification of employee with errors in the workplace, immediate reappraisal, and more preparation ‘s designation. When preparation and development consequences have better consequence, employees tend to expose a greater sense of ownership and pride in their work. This can assist organisation to increasing productiveness and efficiency, at same clip, occupation satisfaction besides increases. Employees who are satisfied in their work are more likely to redouble their attempts and be more valuable to the company, which will in bend, put the organisation in a stronger place ( zeromillion.com, 2011 ) .5.2 Analysis for point 2Customer satisfaction increases repetition concern, this is a cardinal to success.Training will advance good client dealingss and harmonizing to preparation, organisation will increase client satisfaction and quality of service.â€Å"Just In Time† stress on waste decrease and production procedure of waiting time.Better preparation will cut down waste and machine down clip. A major portion of quality costs by supervising ; by supplying appropriate preparation this is reduc ed. Training improves productiveness of employees and procedures ( Ansar, 2009 ) . High staff turnover may be a serious menace to being of an organisation, preparation can cut down staff turnover and assist an organisation to retain its staff. Better preparation can do an organisation more competitory in concern market ( Ansar, 2009 ) . In a service industry organisation chief beginning of income is its employees professional cognition and the accomplishments, hold oning professional with high accomplishments is comparatively expensive than developing current employees to get those accomplishments. Training is besides a cardinal demand for new entry demands ; appropriate preparation helps them to understand their place, its demands and duties. Training will besides increase the understanding organisational civilization ( Ansar, 2009 ) . Training plans increases communicating between different degrees of an organization.Any deficit in procedures and working were canceled and those close to production processes become involve in the management.Employees ‘ authorization is a recent tendency in direction ( Ansar, 2009 ) .5.3 Analysis for point 3Competitive leadThere is greater flexibleness, capacity, stableness and for growing in an organization.Training provides employees at least in the stableness of two aspects.Trained employees go efficient.Efficient employees contribute to the organisation, particularly when growth.In add-on, well-trained employees tend to remain in the organisation. They seldom left the organization.All Renaissance mans can be transferred to any job.Therefore flexibleness is ensured.Growth indicates prosperity, which is reflected in increased net incomes from twelvemonth to year.Who else but well-trained employees can lend to the prosperity of an organisation? Harmonizing to preparation and development, accidents, bit and harm to machinery and equipment can be avoided or minimized.Even ailments, absenteeism, dissatisfaction and turnover can be reduced if employees are trained good. Because of preparation and development plans, the hereafter needs of employees will acquire satisfaction.Training serves as an effectual beginning of enlisting. Training is an investing in human resources with a promise of better returns in future. Therefore, organisations can acquire more competitory though the preparation and development ( Kumar, 2011 ) .5.4 Summary of analysesThey will go competent and execute their assigned undertaking independently. Training can cut down staff turnover and assist an organisation to retain its staff. Better preparation can do an organisation more competitory in concern market. Trained employees go efficient.Efficient employees contribute to the organisation. Finally, developing and development can convey a batch of benefits to both of organisation and em ployees.6. Conclusion & A ; Recommendation6.1 DecisionIn decision, we all know that preparation and development plans are of import for an organisation to develop the employee. When a kid was born he required changeless touch of parents till he stood on his ain feet.An organisation though flowered by picks of the society, still developing is required due to rapid technological up step and alteration in working methods every twenty-four hours. Training purposes at continued self-development of the employees. Employees are expected to develop themselves continuously in an organisation. When the employees in an organisation are developed from clip to clip with all updated cognition, so decidedly that organisation will turn to a greater tallness.6.2 RecommendationBoth employees and companies are concerned with developing future accomplishments and pull offing callings. Companies want a work force that is motivated and productive, has up-to-date accomplishments, and can rapidly larn new accomplishments to run into altering client demands. Employees want to develop accomplishments that non merely are utile for their current occupations but besides are congruous with their personal involvements and values. Employees are interested in developing accomplishments that can assist them stay employable with either their current employer or a future 1. Given the increasing clip demands of work, employees are besides interested in keeping balance between work and nonworking involvements.

Thursday, August 29, 2019

Targeting Bilateral Aid For The Poor

The debate over foreign aid has been raging for quite a while now. Some critics have argued that aid does precious little to the poor countries it reaches. Others arguing against this pessimism have stated that aid brings in investment, which then fosters growth. However what is indeed a matter of concern is that most countries do not have the capability of absorbing aid.This is often a function of poor administrative processes, but could also arise out of poor governance structures that allow the siphoning away of funds due to the lack of accountability in these countries. There are a number of instances that are cited by skeptics to argue against foreign aid as it encourages corruption and leakage.De Soto (1989) gives some extremely clear examples of how corruption in developing countries has left the poor miserable and vulnerable. Boone(1994) shows how aid gives rise to varying outcomes in various countries.Weisskopf (1972) had pointed out how domestic savings and therefore domest ic investment gets affected by various kinds of foreign aid and foreign investment. This kind of intervention is not always in the best interest of the developing country.The debateThe issues are several. Donor countries often give aid for specific purposes. However, what might happen at the recipient’s end is that the aid gets diverted. For example, aid for expenditure of health might get diverted to spending on education.This often depends on what constituencies are more powerful in the country receiving aid. The same is true at the donor end, where more powerful lobbies ensure that it is the sector that gets the benefit of aid.Pharmaceutical sectors in developed countries have very often been blamed for diverting most aid into the health sector while the problems afflicting poor nations might be more acute in terms of starvation and malnutrition.Another reason for disgruntlement against foreign aid is that it tends to distort the domestic development agenda and takes it aw ay towards issues that might not be priority areas. Pfaff (2004) demonstrates how the environment debate in the developed world got transferred to the developing countries riding on massive amounts of aid.In the entire environmental revolution that came about in the seventies and the eighties, the industrialized and developed world ties most of its concern over the environment with aid packages. Additionally, what happens is that aid comes in for sectors, which are highly underdeveloped, and therefore the resources required to handle this aid might not be locally available.These resources are usually both human and material resources. With the non-availability of trained personnel in host countries, the modalities of aid therefore ensure that expatriates are then responsible for the distribution and utilization of such aid. Foreign experts are, to say the least, expensive.What adds to the problem is the bias this builds into the entire process. There is already enough suspicion that exists against foreigners. In addition, there is the entire issue of the lack of familiarity with local issues and local priorities.This gives rise to a disgruntlement with the management of aid and with locals feeling left out and the managers feeling uncomfortable; the efficacy of such aid reduces significantly.The foreigner manager has different sets of priorities and an alien understanding of conditions under which the local population understands the need for assistance and this duality of purpose could lead to tension and misunderstanding. How Aid helps bad governments survive By far the most stringent criticism of foreign aid has been by way of the evidence that poorly governments in developing countries have managed to survive because of the aid they are able to attract.These governments have used the aid to push policies in their countries that have been detrimental to the development of markets due to the poor economic and industrial policy environment that has been put i n place. Aid has lead to complacency as some constituencies receive enough sops and therefore do not exert pressure on their governments.Aid gives rise to protectionist measures and the competitive environment that must exist and evolve in developing economies just does not come through.Therefore poor governance continues to thrive and the dependence on foreign aid becomes perpetual. Krueger (1974) shows how this situation helps rent seekers in developing societies thrive on the poor state of political processes, especially in times of economic distress.What has also been observed that aid that comes tied to certain conditions, forces structural adjustment programs on countries that are unable to protest.However unwillingly, these countries must undergo painful reforms to satisfy the conditions laid by donors. This has often resulted in large reductions in public investments and in subsidies to the targeted poor. The famous examples where such pressure has caused domestic damage are in the structural adjustments that were forced upon Argentina, Brazil and Mexico.With pressure on them to reduce fiscal deficits, these countries went in for stringent reform measures leading to high inflation and acute stagnation. Locke (2001) shows the extent to which governments can pressurize other nations to manage policies to restructure economies in a particular fashion.However it must be pointed out that this debate is not one sided. There are countries like Zambia that have been at the receiving end. With aid increasing annually over the seventies and the eighties, the economic situation in Zambia went form bad to worse. On the other hand is Ghana in the same region.Here aid helped foster a friendly environment for the domestic policy to correct itself and help the local economy grow. In Zambia, increased aid coincided with poor policy, while in Ghana as aid levels went up, there were marked improvements seen in the fiscal and monetary sectors as also in the external secto r with trade policy improving considerably.Levinsohn and McMillan (2005) argue that aid to Ethiopia actually was pro poor and enabled the country move towards food sufficiency and food security by ensuring that the poor were given access to food supplies. Â  The authors show how households, especially the very poor, benefited when aid went into the provision of wheat in Ethiopia. The paper further argues that the very poor actually benefited the most in this process.

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Questions-Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Questions-Communication - Essay Example Diversity within an organization can take a number of different forms such as diverse cultures, religions, nationalities and job groupings (Shockley-Zalabak, 2002; Mor-Barak, 2011). In my organization, the implementation and maintenance of programs that value diversity is generally undertaken using a number of approaches, key among them is review and re-writing of policies so as to create a division within the organization tasked with prompting inclusion and workforce development (Mor-Barak, 2011). This division is mandated to undertake a special recruitment policy that is designed to seek to promote diversity within the organization. To this end, training programs are conducted to promote the adoption of diversity among the employees. The division also implements a variety of internal mentorship and internship programs that are designed to prepare some of the internal candidates both for competition with outside job applicants and upward mobility to prevent their being marginalized by the special recruitment program (Mor-Barak, 2011). The diversity valuing programs practiced by my organization are seen to be quite effective at increasing both the awareness and valuing of diversity in the workplace. They are designed to increase the organization’s diversity via the special recruitment policy while simultaneously promoting the competitiveness of the existing employees through the internal mentorship and internship programs (Mor-Barak, 2011). However, there are a number of changes that can be made to increase the overall effectiveness of these programs. While increasing the awareness and integration of diversity within the organization is seen to be primarily dependent on employees at every level of the organization working at fulfilling their roles, it is also critically important for the organization’s leadership to increase both the amount of resources and the level of guidance and support it lends to these programs (Mor-Barak, 2011). Reference: Mor-Barak, E. M. (2011). Managing diversity: toward a globally inclusive workplace. Los Angeles: SAGE. M4A1: The communication style used by a past leader in my organization, its relation to his leadership style and its suitability to our workplace and culture When I joined my organization, my direct supervisor primarily used to employ the use of an assertive communication style. His role of directing the new recruits on how to perform their duties necessitated that he used the style to ensure that he was able to portray himself to be in authority when working with the recruits (Shockley-Zalabak, 2002). The assertive communication style is seen to have been quite appropriate to the supervisor a suitable to our workplace as it perfectly complemented his transactional leadership style. In line with his leadership style, the manager used to provide us with a number of pre-agreed tasks to perform and would then punish or reward us depending on how these tasks were performed (Shockley-Za labak, 2002). In the event that one of us would continually fail to adequately perform the assigned task, the supervisor would then undertake to provide more intensive and closely supervised training to the employee and would then encourage the employee by providing the employee with bonuses if they managed to register performance improvements. However, the communication style used by the supervisor could have been drastically improved if the supervisor undertook to try and listen more to the input provided

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Public Opinion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Public Opinion - Essay Example Therefore public opinion has become a valuable aspect of governance. In this case the evolution of technology and more democratic forms of govern which has kept the upholding of the right of individual has seen a dramatic evolution in giving of information to all people. One of the recent developments in the public opinion arena has been the opinion polls that have been used to give various information or views of the public on certain issues. They have been successful use in political pundits, market researches, national government agendas, and in other areas. Sociologists have relied on opinion polls in order to determine the success or failure of an event based on the views of the public. However opinion polls and other public view are contested notion that are likely to change overnight depending on what will be happening next. (Entman and Herbst 2001, P. 242; McCombs 2004, p. 63) The development of public opinion can be traced to many years ago during the time of Greek civilization. The quest on the nature of public opinion was first expressed by Plato who was a great Greek philosopher and who made immense contribution to the modern body of knowledge. From Plato the quest for the nature of public opinion can then be traced back to Herbamans and later to Bourdieu who seemed to contest the ability to have public opinion. Let us focus on the view of Bourdieu on public opinion and why he contested the existence of public opinion. The expression of the nature of public opinion according to Bourdieu can be traced to what he wrote in his book. He asserted the "the politician who yesterday said 'God is on our side' today says 'public opinion is on our side'". (Bourdieu 1979, pg. 125) According to Bourdieu, he was criticizing the notion that political have a way of relying on the views of the public which is done solely for source of support. In this case he was trying to show that the power of the politicians if vested in the people. The public have more power and control of the political situation in a state rather than the politician. This can also be attributed to what Aristotle referred to as a weak king when he asserted that a king who lost support of the public opinion should not be regarded as a king any more. In this case it is clear that the modern understanding of democracy and the politics can be taken in a way that political power should be vested on the people and should be responsibility of the people and their opinions. But the way Bourdieu compared political power with God detest the power of the public opinion. Bourdieu views public opinion as a manufactured consent and not as a traditional ways of research that can be used to give accurate information on something. He argued that public opinion in the form that is implemented is used in survey and poll is not efficient and does not exist. In this case he showed that opinion polls are used by those in power as a political instrument that legitimize their actions. They are relations of forces and tension and therefore they cannot be described as a percentage in any way. In his criticism of the polls, Bourdieu asserts that each and every one of use has an opinion that can be given on an idea. He stressed that all the

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems Essay

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems - Essay Example The nerve fibers of the  parasympathetic nervous system  are the  cranial nerves, primarily the  vagus nerve, and the lumbar spinal nerves. When stimulated, these nerves increase digestive secretions and reduce the heartbeat. The sympathetic nervous system activates what is often termed the fight or flight response. Like other parts of the nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system operates through a series of interconnected neurons. Sympathetic neurons are frequently considered part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), although there are many that lie within the central nervous system (CNS). Sympathetic neurons of the spinal cord (which is part of the CNS) communicate with peripheral sympathetic neurons via a series of sympathetic ganglia. Within the ganglia, spinal cord sympathetic neurons join peripheral sympathetic neurons through chemical synapses. Spinal cord sympathetic neurons are therefore called presynaptic (or preganglionic) neurons, while peripheral sympathetic neurons are called postsynaptic (or postganglionic) neurons. At synapses within the sympathetic ganglia, preganglionic sympathetic neurons release acetylcholine, a chemical messenger that binds and activates nicotinic acetylchol ine receptors on postganglionic neurons. In response to this stimulus, postganglionic neurons principally release noradrenalin (norepinephrine). Prolonged activation can elicit the release of adrenaline from the adrenal medulla. Once released, noradrenalin and adrenaline bind adrenergic receptors on peripheral tissues. Binding to adrenergic receptors causes the effects seen during the fight-or-flight response. These include pupil dilation, increased sweating, increased heart rate, and increased blood pressure. Sympathetic nerves originate inside the vertebral column, toward the middle of the spinal cord in the

Monday, August 26, 2019

What are the problems of Porters Diamond when applied to an Essay

What are the problems of Porters Diamond when applied to an International Business - Essay Example Several problems arise while applying this theory to international businesses. But, before analyzing the problems that are being faced in case of applying Porter Diamond theory, it is necessary provide a brief but clear about this theory. Porter proposed the well-known Diamond Model to assess the level of competitiveness of a nation in the sphere of international business. The thing worth noting in this model is that, the diamond model actually represented quite a different paradigm than what were found in the earlier theories. Smith’s theory of â€Å"Absolute advantage† (Smith, 1776, p. 11) or the â€Å"comparative advantage† theory of Ricardo (Ricardo, 1817, p. 75) put their focus on factors of production of each of the nations – land, labor, capital and natural resources. According to Smith, it’s the total output that determines a nation’s total wealth. Ricardo, on the other hand, argued that instead of productivity of the factors of production, the opportunity cost of the factors determines the advantage that a country enjoys over the other in international business. In 1990, Porter pointed towards a problem regarding the applicability of these two theories in later twent ieth century. When the theories of Adam Smith and Ricardo were proposed in eighteenth and nineteenth century, respectively, only low level of skills were necessary to stand in international competition. During those periods, the principal sources of competitive advantage were natural resources and factors of production. The problem with these theories, as detected by Porter, was that the application of these theories in the modern technologically advanced age of late twentieth century seems to give rise to a number of complicacies. Over the years, technological innovations have taken place in an increasing amount and along with it globalization has also taken place in the markets. As a result, the

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Organisational Culture & International Management Essay

Organisational Culture & International Management - Essay Example ......................................................................6 2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Organisational Culture........................6 2.2 Dyson Paper's Organisational Structures & Cultural Trends......................7 2.3 Jones Sales Agency's Organisational Structures & Cultural Trends............8 3.1 Issues in the Merger Between the Two UK Departments..........................8 3.1.1 Structures & Cultural Clash..............................................................9 3.1.2 Management & Unity of Purpose.......................................................10 3.1.3 Ethical Differences..........................................................................11 3.1.3 Motivation.....................................................................................11 3.2 Towards Resolving the Issues With the Merger †¦..................................12 3.2.1 Team Building................................................................................12 3 .2.2 Definition of A New Management Structure for Paper Converters...........13 3.2.3 Formulation of Common Systems and Structures................................13 3.2.4 Communication & Interpersonal Interaction........................................14 3.2.5 Supervision...................................................................................14 3.2.6 Training........................................................................................14 4.0 Zambian Joint Vent... ..................................................................16 4.1.3 Poor Information Flow Systems & Lack of Control..............................16 4.2 International Cultural Issues..............................................................16 4.2.1 Disregard for Cultural Dimensions....................................................17 4.2.2 Power Distance Issues....................................................................17 4.2.3 Uncertainty Avoidance Lapses..........................................................17 4.2.4 Role Playing Issues.........................................................................18 4.3 Towards Improving the Zambian Joint Venture......................................18 Conclusion.............................................................................................18 References.............................................................................................20 Executive Summary This paper provides an insight into the major organisational behaviour problems being faced by Paper Converters Limited. The company is the culmination of a merger between two companies with distinct specializations. However, a move to a joint premises and the establishment of an unsuccessful international branch has prompted an enquiry into the causes of issues in the company. The paper identifies that there are major organisational culture issues between the two entities and this spans from the clash of cultures of the two departments. Also, the failure of the management of Paper Converters to take decisive action has led to major problems. This has affected motivation and performance of the organisation. It would be appropriate to integrate some measures relating to team building like communication, definition of

Saturday, August 24, 2019

External consultant for staffing services Case Study

External consultant for staffing services - Case Study Example Therefore, it is highly advised that the company adopts the culture of both acquisition and development of talent. This is the case because since all employees, full time or part time, are part of the workforce, there will always be vacancies that can never be filled by someone already present in the company. That is why the company human resource has to source from the external professionals. After acquiring this talent, it is highly recommended that the company develops this talent to the level of operation required. This is the only way to develop the culture of the company because Saari, Lise and Timothy (2004) indicated that employees tend to be part of a company culture when they are developed within the company. Top managers like the regional managers should therefore never be acquired but developed from within. Lag or Lead System The company should strictly continue with the lead system. Human resource experts indicate that customers tend to be part of a company when all its stores are operating in a homogeneous way. Tanglewood is experiencing a situation where some branch HR managers are adapting their own way of running their branches. It is this lack of uniformity that creates customer confusion among the different branches (Cooper & Burke, 2011). No doubt the company had to hire a consulting firm to help develop the missing team work. Given the competitive industry that the company is operating in, it is easy for huge companies like Wal-Mart to acquire Tanglewood one day. Another advantage of leading is that the company president is able to easily co-ordinate all the branch activities since there is a high rate of cognizable and unified operating systems. With the company operating 243 stores in 15 divisions, lack of homogeneity can create a drop in communication between the stores. Moreover, the company elements were taken from those of the other firms in the industry. A strong counterproductive initiative by any of the competitors based on these e lements would be extremely dangerous to the company. External or Internal Hiring The company organizational structure is said to be that which a familiar hierarchy. It is said to be a deceptive structure in that most of the decisions come from the subordinates. Moreover, there is always a directive that assistant store managers should always give instructions to their juniors. Therefore, owing to this, the company is supposed to create two hiring avenues. The first avenue is where the senior management teams are never hired from the external setting. Secondly, the very junior management teams like the store and operations associates are hired from the external setting. This is important to making sure that the culture of the company is developed. In view of Wilton (2010), when a vacant position opens aup at the top management, there is need to promote someone in the repective lower position to cover up for that. The resultant view will be that each employee in the respective lower p osition will be promoted leaving the lowest position vacant. This is the position that would involve external hiring. Core or Flexible Workforce From the case information, the company is said to maintain a core work force, whether temporary or permanent. From a professional perspective, much as it is the will of the company to develop a core

Friday, August 23, 2019

Limitations and Requirements of ANOVA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Limitations and Requirements of ANOVA - Essay Example The samples’ variances should not be different though some departures can be accommodated. All individuals used in the samples must be selected randomly from the population. All individuals of the samples must have equal probability for being selected. The sizes of the sample should be equal but there is an allowance of some differences. One of the limitations of ANOVA is that, when a significant data difference cannot be found, the samples cannot be said to be the same. It only indicates differences between groups and not groups which are different. Normality assumes that the errors which are random within each group of treatment, the groups’ mean deviations, have a normal probability distribution. For normal data but variances which are heterogeneous, ANOVA is good for balanced designs but not for designs which are highly unbalanced. In normal data setting, heterogeneous variances and designs which are unbalanced, Welch’s ANOVA might be used for the accommodation of unequal variances. With variances which are homogenous but data which is non-normal, ANOVA is good for designs which are balanced with large samples. It is not good for unbalanced designs with small samples. In non-normal data setting, variances which are homogenous and a small sample or unbalanced design, a non-parametric procedure is preferred. If the distribution of data is not normal and heterogeneity of variances exist, there might be transformation necessity. The importance of a design which is balanced and existence of a large sample must be pu t into consideration. A common standard deviation is shared by all normal distributions. The different t-test options can be used around the equal variances assumptions or unequal variances assumption. The f-test, apart from being used to for t-tests, it can also be used to compare variations in two data sets in the CJ data. The test makes use of a calculated F stat

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus Essay Example for Free

Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus Essay Etiology of Diabetes Mellitus â€Å"Diabetes is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. The chronic hyperglycemia of diabetes is associated with long-term damage, dysfunction, and failure of different organs, especially the eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart, and blood vessels.† (Association, National Center for Biotechnology Information , 2009, p. 1) â€Å"The cause of type 1 and type 2 diabetes remains a mystery. Although genetic factors may play a role†. (Association, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus, 2010, pp. 562-569) Diabetes mellitus generally results from an insulin deficiency or resistance. Insulin transports sugar into cells for use as energy and storage as glycogen which is a carbohydrate. Insulin also stimulates protein synthesis and free fatty acid storage. Insulin deficiency or resistance compromises the bodies access to essential nutrients for fuel and storage. Several processes called pathogens(capable of causing disease) are involved in the development of diabetes. The reasons of the abnormalities in carbohydrates, fats, and protein metabolism in diabetes is deficient action of insulin on certain tissues in the body. The term Deficient insulin action, results from not enough insulin secretion and/or diminished tissue response to insulin at one or more points in the complex pathways of hormone action (a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another). If insulin secretion is blocked or impaired, then defects in the insulin action occur in the same patient, and it is often unclear which abnormality, the cause of the hyperglycemia. (Report of the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus, 1997, pp. 107-109) Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus is defined as an autoimmune disorder or simply put an overactive immune response of the body against substances and tissues normally present in the body. In other words, the body actually attacks its own cells (What-is-Autoimmune-Disease). This form of diabetes is brought on by a viral infection in which certain cells are destroyed which leads to absolute (complete) insulin deficiency and is usually diagnosed in childh ood. Many pediatric patients that have diabetes normally have Type 1 diabetes and therefore a lifetime dependency on insulin. â€Å"Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder caused by an absolute or relative deficiency of insulin, an anabolic hormone.† (Diabetes-MellitusDefinition-Causes-Symptoms-and-Treatment) In contrast Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus is a more progressive disorder in which the glandular organ in the digestive system and endocrine system known as the pancreas makes less insulin over time. Because the body’s cells have a reduced response to insulin, symptoms arise that include poor control of liver glucose (sugar) output, a decrease in cell function, and eventually cell failure. The true cause of Type 2 diabetes is unknown; however, it usually occurs in adulthood, from heredity, excessive obesity and sedentary lifestyle. These lifestyle choices may play a major role in its development. For both types of diabetes the main feature is chronic high blood glucose (sugar) levels (Ignatavicius, 2006). Risk factors for Diabetes Mellitus include obesity, physiologic or emotional stress, which can lead to an elevation of stress hormone levels. In women sometimes pregnancy, which causes weight gain and increases levels of estrogen and placental hormones, may aggravate insulin output. There is also something called the metabolic syndrome which is a combination of medical disorders that, when occurring together, increase the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and diabetes. There are also some medications that can provoke the effects of insulin, including thiazide diuretics, adrenal corticosteroids, and hormonal contraceptives (Mackay, 2004). Classification of Diabetes Mellitus There are several different types of diabetes mellitus; they may differ in cause, clinical course, and treatment. The major classifications of diabetes are: * Type 1 diabetes (insulin dependent diabetes mellitus) is caused by B-cell destruction, usually leading to absolute insulin deficiency a) Immune mediated b) Idiopathic * Type 2 diabetes (previously referred to as non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus) ranges from those with predominant insulin resistance associated with relative insulin deficiency, to those with a predominantly insulin secretory defect with insulin resistance (Alberti, 2007). Insulin is secreted by beta cells, which are one of four types of cells in the islets of Langerhans (dendritic cells = antigen-presenting immune cells) in the pancreas. Insulin is an anabolic, or storage hormone. When a person eats a meal, insulin secretion increases and moves sugar from the blood into muscle, liver, and fat cells. In those cells, insulin transports and metabolizes glucose for energy. Later it stimulates storage of sugar in the liver and muscle (in the form of glycogen). Following this it signals the liver to stop the release of glucose, then enhances storage of dietary fat in adipose which is a storage tissue. Finally it accelerates the transport of amino acids (derived from dietary protein) into the body’s cells. â€Å"Insulin also inhibits the breakdown of stored glucose, protein, and fat. During fasting periods (between meals and overnight), the pancreas continuously releases a small amount of insulin (basal insulin); another pancreatic hormone called glucagon (secreted by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans) is released when blood glucose levels decrease and stimulate the liver to release stored glucose. The insulin and the glucagon together maintain a constant level of glucose in the blood by stimulating the release of glucose from the liver. Initially, the liver produces glucose through the breakdown of glycogen (glycogenolysis). Glycogen is the storage form for glucose in the liver and muscles. Glycogenolysis is the conversion of glycogen into glucose in the liver. After 8 to 12 hours without food, the liver forms glucose from the breakdown of non-carbohydrate substances, including amino acids (gluconeogenesis)† (Hamouda, 2012). Type 1 Diabetes Treatment and Study This form of diabetes is immune-mediated in over 90% of cases and idiopathic in less than 10%. The rate of pancreatic B cell destruction is quite variable, being rapid in some individuals and slow in others. Type 1 diabetes is usually associated with ketosis in its untreated state. It occurs at any age but most commonly arises in children and young adults with a peak incidence before school age and again at around puberty. It is a catabolic disorder in which circulating insulin is virtually absent, plasma glucagon is elevated, and the pancreatic B cells fail to respond to all insulinogenic stimuli. Exogenous insulin is therefore required to reverse the catabolic state, prevent ketosis, reduce the hyperglucagonemia, and reduce blood glucose. Clinical manifestations of all types of diabetes include the â€Å"three Ps†: polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia. Polyuria (increased urination) and polydipsia (increased thirst) occur as a result of the excess loss of fluid associated with osmotic diuresis. The patient also experiences polyphagia (increased appetite) resulting from the catabolic state induced by insulin deficiency and the breakdown of proteins and fats. Other symptoms include fatigue and weakness, sudden vision changes, tingling or numbness in hands or feet, dry skin, skin lesions or wounds that are slow to heal, and recurrent infections (Hamouda, 2012, p. para. 8). The onset of type 1 Diabetes may also be associated with sudden weight loss or nausea, vomiting, or abdominal pains. (Association, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus, 2010) In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the impact of diabetes mellitus on the central nervous system (Lukovits TG, 1999).Clinically and epidemiologically, it has been shown that diabetes mellitus is an important risk factor for cerebrovascular accidents (Kannel WB, 1979), and may underlie many of the neuropsychological and cognitive deficits observed in diabetic patients (CM, 1988). Few studies have sought to establish the pathophysiological mechanisms that occur before these deficits appear, with a view to detecting early subclinical abnormalities that could serve as markers of the risk for stroke in patients who might benefit from preventive treatment. The study I read was performed in 15 insulin-dependent diabetics (eight men and seven women) with no history of central neurological symptoms. Their ages ranged from 27 to 59 years (mean 46 ±8 years) and the mean time since diagnosis of diabetes mellitus was 19 ±6 years. The characteristics of the patients are given in the Table below. The study was been reviewed by the hospitals ethics clinical committee, and before being enrolled each patient gave written informed consent. Characteristics of study subjects No. 15 Gender (M/F) 8/7 Age (years) 46 ±8 Arterial hypertension (yes/no) 5/12 Total cholesterol (mg/dl) 214 ±49 Time from diagnosis of IDDM (years) 19 ±6 Hemoglobin A1C (%) 8.19 ±0.8 Diabetic nephropathy (no/micro/macro albuminuria) 10/1/4 Diabetic retinopathy (yes/no) 7/8 Diabetic neuropathy (yes/no) 7/8 IDDM, Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus The study dealt with the Cerebrovascular reserve (CVR) which is the capacity of cerebral arteries and arterioles to dilate, thus increasing blood flow in areas of decreased perfusion pressure (WJ, 1991). It is one of the first mechanisms of the brain to be activated in cases of hemodynamic compromise and is an early indicator of its existence (Baron JC, 1981). The chemical Acetazolamide, a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, induces dilatation of the cerebral microvasculature and has been widely used in assessing CVR in large series of patients with different cerebrovascular disorders. (Julio F. Jimà ©nez-Bonilla, 2001). The study concluded that Insulin-dependent diabetic patients with no clinical history of neurological disorders present baseline abnormalities in cerebral perfusion and a decrease in CVR in extensive areas of the brain. The decrease in CVR and the behavior of baseline subclinical abnormalities after administration of acetazolamide suggested the existence of chronic cerebrovascular disease, the severity of which varied between patients and was better assessed with this technique than with baseline SPET (PET scan). In addition, the introduction of acetazolamide made it possible to classify baseline irregularities as being of probable metabolic origin or of probable ischemic origin. They concluded that the post-acetazolamide brain SPET is a valid tool which, in comparison with baseline SPET, provided additional information on cerebral perfusion in insulin-dependent diabetes. The technique should prove useful in evaluating future preventive strategies aimed at reducing the incidence of complications in diabetics. (Julio F. Jimà ©nez-Bonilla, 2001) The main goal of diabetes treatment is to normalize insulin activity and blood glucose levels to reduce the development of vascular and neuropathic complications. Insulin is indicated for type 1 diabetes as well as for type 2 diabetic patients with insulin openia whose hyperglycemia does not respond to diet therapy either alone or combined with other hypoglycemic drugs. The therapeutic goal for diabetes management is to achieve normal blood glucose levels (euglycemia) without hypoglycemia and without seriously disrupting the patient’s usual lifestyle and activity. There are five components of diabetes management †¢ Nutritional management – teaching the patient to eat properly and manage their diet accordingly. †¢ Exercise †¢ Monitoring – Use of a glucose meter and watching their numbers. †¢ Pharmacologic therapy – medicines that help level off sugars in their system. †¢ Education – finding out all the information they can about the disease so they will be informed as to the preventative measures taken to lead a more normal life. Bibliography Report of the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. (1997). Diabetes Care, 20:1183-97. CITATIONS AND CLINICIANS NOTES: ETIOLOGY, PREDICTION, AND INCIDENCE OF DIABETES. (2005). Current Medical Literature: Diabetes, 22(2), 32-33. Alberti, K. M. (2007). International Diabetes Federation: a consensus on Type 2 diabetes prevention. Diabetic Medicine, 24(5), 451-463. doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2007.02157.x. Association, A. D. (2009, January). National Center for Biotechnology Information . Retrieved from PMC US National Library of Medicine : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2613584/ Association, A. D. (2010, January). Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care, pp. 562-569. Baron JC, B. M. (1981). Reversal of focal â€Å"misery-perfusion syndrome† by extra-intracranial arterial bypass in hemodynamic cerebral ischemia. A case study. Stroke, 12: 454-459. CM, R. (1988). Neurobehavioral complications of type I diabetes. Examination of possible risk factors. Diabetes Care, 11: 499-505. Diabetes-MellitusDefinition-Causes-Symptoms-and-Treatment. (n.d.). Retrieved 12 15, 2012, from www.healthguidance.org: http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/7366/1/Diabetes-MellitusDefinition-Causes-Symptoms-and-Treatment.html Hamouda, M. (2012, May 24).

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

Diversity in Survey Methods Essay Example for Free

Diversity in Survey Methods Essay Introduction Before describing the implication of diversity in doing research, it is important to note that any research should be as specific as possible. For example, suppose the researcher intends to evaluate or find out whether women experience more automobile accidents than men, then the researcher should specify the variables to be used. Too many variables may make the study too general and invalid. One researcher may opt to approach this research by comparing women and men in terms of how easily they get distracted   and the number of accidents they face either gender. Another researcher may opt to just approach this research by analyzing accident   cases and counting which of the cases is caused by women and which is caused by men. The two researchers would have different survey questions. The first researcher will have a relatively diverse survey questions because he or she is considering two variables, whereas the latter researcher will have homogenous survey questions (Jackson, 2012).   When the variable survey questions are diverse, the significance and mean of the variables may be skewed to the right or left depending on the degree of diversity. If some of the values in the variables are extremely low, then the mean would be lower than the median and hence the results will be skewed to the right. Alternatively, if the diversity is made up of variables that are extremely high in value, then the mean will be more than the median and the results will be skewed to the left. Skewness may distort the true meaning of the results (Jackson, 2012). Consequently, the researcher needs to take into account a number of aspects. The first aspect is outliers. The researcher should remove any outlier as possible because it is the outliers that are responsible for the shift of the results (Jackson, 2012). In addition, the researcher should make the survey questions relatively specific. References Jackson, S. L. (2012).  Research methods and statistics: A critical thinking approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

The aging problem of China

The aging problem of China Introduction Today, China is a hot item in the media because of its fast growing economy. Some people are even afraid of this because they think it is a threat to our own economy. This because of the differences in the political and economical system of china compared to our political and economical systems. The Peoples Republic of China, also known as China, was established in 1949. Its land covers a large part of centre Asia. In the 1950s, its population was estimated at around 30 percent of the total global population (Naughton, 2007). Because of this huge amount of people, the Chinese government came up with a plan to put a hold to this growing population. They set a law which prohibited each family to have more than one child, the so-called One-Child Policy. The population of China today is relatively young, with a low dependency rate. This is favorable for economic growth (Naughton, 2007). In the future this will lead to an imbalance of the population. This because each working citizen has two elder (parents), this means a working class which is far too small on the total population. Every year, the number of elderly people in China rises with approximately three percent. A way to describe this is calling this a Four-Two-One problem. Which means one child has to take care of two parents and four grand parents (Vandendriessche, 2008). The research question which I will try to answer is the following: How is china going to handle the aging problem of the population? To answer this question, I divided this question into several sub-question, namely: How has this aging problem risen? What are the difficulties which china is facing because of this problem? How do the Chinese old people deal with their longevity financially? Motivation of the subject: The subject of Chinese economy is interesting to me because I have little faith in the current economic system of the western society. I believe this economic system based on debts, is not what we would like in the future. And China is one of the few economies which is growing at the moment, despite the current Financial Crisis. Chinas economy will expand 7.2 percent in 2009 from a year earlier. (Bloomberg.com, 2009) But because many economists say capitalism is the best economic system at the moment, I am surprised to see that China does not apply this system. The reason the subject of the aging of Chinas population is important to the economy, is that will one of the greatest pitfalls in Chinas economic and societies future. A disproportionate ration of the population will retire in the future, therefore a much smaller group of working people will have to keep the society up and running. Is this possible, or are there many problems which China will have to face in the future? And if there will be problems, is China able to prevent or solve them? This is interesting because of the large number of citizens of China. This cannot be compared with any other country in the world, because it will happen on a much larger scale as for instance in the Netherlands. Methodology: First I will try to adumbrate an image of how the situation has developed to the state in which it is at this moment. With this image, certain problems will arise from this. I will try to give a broader view on these problems. These problems, when not solved, will have an impact on the economic environment of China. This I would like to formulate in the third chapter. Finally I am going to investigate whether these, in the future, elder people still have the means to survive on their own, or how the Chinese government is going to assist them with this. This with some kind of pension fund or will the Chinese government terugvallen on the social responsibility of family. With these sub-answers I would like to give an answer to the main question. How China is going to handle the problem of the aging of the population. The data which I need I will get from articles from the Chinese Economic Review, data from the Chinese Bureau of Statistics, Chinese Data Centre and the Chinese Statistical Yearbook. Furthermore I will search for books on the Chinese economy and the history of the Chinese economy and society. Structure The first chapter is about the introduction of the problem and each factor contributing will be explained. In chapter two I am going to give a literature review on five of the interesting papers I have found. Then I will try to find answers to the sub question of my problem statement. These will each cover a chapter. Chapter three: How has this aging problem risen? Chapter four: What are the difficulties which china is facing because of this problem? Chapter five: How do the Chinese old people deal with their longevity financially? After this I will draw a conclusion based on the previous chapters. With this I will try to give an answer to the main question. Chapter 2 Literature Review Population and economic development Gale Johnson tries to answer the question, what would happen to fertility and population growth if the present population policy were changed to one that emphasized family planning and permitted families to have the number of children that they wished? It seems reasonable to project that there would be an increase in fertility. This would be very small in urban areas and relatively small in higher income rural areas. There would be increased fertility in the lower income rural areas, but it seems unlikely that after two decades or so it could be more than ten percent. There is evidence to support the following changes in social and economic policies: Significantly improve the quality of rural secondary schools and increase the percentage of girls attending. Create an attractive pension program for rural areas. Give farm people the ownership or permanent rights to the use of the land they farm or, failing that, enforce the policy of no reallocation of farm land on the basis of demographic changes. Change policies and institutions so that families could migrate from rural to urban areas. Which would lead to adaption of the fertility patterns of urban areas, leading to decline in fertility. I believe the largest impact on the fertility rate, when present policy towards this is changed, will be in the poorer regions of the rural areas. But I do not think all changes give will work. The improvement of educational quality and increasing the percentage of girls will be the one of the most important measures to be taken. This will give an re-allocation of human capital. With this re-allocation, people will get other jobs and therefore a need for many children to work on the farms will decrease. Pension funds are in my opinion essential in order for elderly citizens of China to get by financially. This because the life expectancy rate is increasing. The right of ownership is a viewpoint which will be very sensitive. This because China still has a communistic government. But when pension funds are not one of the future measures which will be taken, this is one of the other options for Chinese citizens to make enough money in order to cope with their longevity financially. Sources of Chinas economic growth 1952-1999: incorporating human capital accumulation Wang and Yao, find that first, the accumulation of human capital in China, as measured by the average years of schooling in population aged 15-64 years, was quite rapid and it contributed significantly to growth and welfare. However, the rate of growth of human capital declined in the reform period in 1978-1999 and its contribution to GDP growth was smaller compared to the pre-reform period. In the industrial countries, the contributions to growth by the factor input have declined and the growth of TFP has become the driving force. In China, the potential to further increase factor inputs is limited especially after one considers the rapidly aging population, a decling labor force in the future, and the constraints in natural resources. China has to rely more on productivity growth. Futher productivity growth would depend very much on two factors: First whether or not China can improve allocative efficiency by continuing reforms in the state and financial sectors and by increasing regional integration, allowing freer factor mobility across sectoral devides, such as rural-urban and state- nonstate, and second whether or not China is able to transform itself from an imitation based economy to an innovation based knowledge economy and continue its progress in industrial upgrading. I agree with Wang and Yao on the fact that productivity has to grow in China. But in order to do this China has to open up more to other countries. Otherwise this would take too long. China is in need for knowledge, this can be seen in the imitation based economy. When China would have the knowledge, they would invent these products themselves. Chinas economic environment has its limitations to grow, this because of their ownership laws. China does not have to change into a Capitalistic society, but I think it does have to loosen up in order to cope with the problems it faces. Pension reform in China: preparing for the future According to Loraine West, a combination of pension plans, including defined benefit and defined contribution, are replacing the former single defined benefit plan. The specifics of each plan, including indexation for inflation, and the combination of plans available to workers vary across regions. By focusing only on the urban labor force, which presently comprises just 27 percent of Chinas total labor force, the reformed old age security system is unlikely to address the issue of growing rural-urban inequality. The proliferation of regional and industry-based pools diminishes the potential benefits of pooling, such as risk sharing, lower administrative costs, and enhanced labor mobility, and also makes it more difficult to achieve the goal of a national level pool. The key objectives of the new pension system is to move away from a pay-as-you-go system to partial funding in preparation of the aging of the population. However, to have a successful pension system in the future, the financing burden has to be shared by employees, employers and the government rather than being borne exclusively by the individual work unit. In the short run, it is critical that regulations and supervision catch up with the new system. In the long term, expansion of coverage and benefit adjustments need to be considered. I agree it will be hard to implement a new old age security system in China. However, I believe it will be key to implement a system which is the same in every part of China. Otherwise the differences between rural and urban areas will only expand, and thus create an even higher burden on the economy than it is at this moment. This will be difficult to fulfill because which groups have to contribute the most. This might even call for a similar system as in the Netherlands, where the government guarantees a minimal pension wage and where the rest is contributed by the companies and working force. How can China solve its old age security problem? The interaction between pension, soe and financial market reform. According to Estelle James, she suggests a plan which sets up individual accounts for each worker, with funds that are productively invested. This is similar to reforms that have been sweeping Latin America, Eastern Europe and are now being considered in the United States. Besides making the system more fiscally sustainable and avoiding peak contribution rates, prefunding can be used to increase saving that is committed for long term investments and pension funds can be used as engines to financial market development and corporate governance. This can be done with two mandatory pillars; one publically managed and tax or pay-as-you-go financed, the other privately managed, with the object of building and managing retirement savings. This to avoid high payroll taxes as the populations age, thereby making the system more sustainable, and to increase national savings that are committed to the long term. However, the part of the economy that is growing most rapidly, in part because it faces low taxes, liabilities and regulations, would suddenly be hit with a heavy legacy of the past. The challenge for China is to find a way to implement a more funded system, that includes decentralized competitive management of the funds, quickly, before coverage increases become a social necessity and makes the transition more difficult. Here I have the same critique as on the previous literature, namely about the rural and urban separation. When the pension system first only reforms the urban part and later expands its coverage towards the rural area, the cost will only increase more and more. But it will be complicated to implement a new system immediately for the entire country, this because it will give a huge burden on the current working class. Chapter 3: The history of China. The year 1949 can be viewed as the First major divide in Chinese history. Before this year, no rapid growth ever occurred in Chinese economy. This was completely different after 1949, when rapid growth was considerably normal. The government is also drastically different after 1949. In 1950 a new law was introduced which stated that: Parents have the duty to raise their children well and the children in their turn have the duty to support their parents. This was a good way for the Chinese government at that time, to not be directly responsible for the attendance of the elder citizens. This was an indication of the change from a harmonious civilization towards a more individualistic civilization. During the fifties, a five-guarantee program had launched for the rural areas. This program mend support from the government for elder who had no offspring or other people who took care of them in the form of food, clothing, shelter, medical care and a funeral. (Naughton, 2007) in 1951, the Chinese government came up with the act Labour Insurance Regulations of the Peoples Republic of China. These first pension regulations where only for citizens working at state enterprises. This mend that all employees of such enterprise have to give three percent of their salary to a mutual fund within this company, and when they reached the age of sixty and they had worked for more than twenty years they would receive a pension. (Frazier, 2004) This reality, this resulted in a relatively low percentage of people who received a pension, because until 1971 nobody could reach this twenty years of work experience. At the end of the seventies, two major new regulations were introduced. First in 1978 where China opened their borders a tiny bit for foreign companies to do business with Chinese companies, but still under heavy oversight by the Chinese government. This also led towards a higher independency of the state enterprises. These where allowed to keep their profit. But also the responsibility of pensions was now entirely for these companies. It was now also allowed for Chinese citizens to start up their own company. (KNAG, 2007) However, these new private owned companies were not able to give the same pension security as these former state enterprises. Therefore the Chinese government came up with a new experiment of pension funding in 1982. They tried to create pension funds not just per company, but pension funds for an entire city to create a higher safety net. These funds were filled by employees working in this city on a pay-as-you-go (PAYG) basis. This means the pensions which are cu rrently paid, are funded by the taxes and contributions from the working people at the same moment. That means there are no assets being set aside. The rural area did not benefit from all these regulations. Because of this new kind of economy, the rural areas decentralized. This took a lot of security away for the elder in these areas, because they were still dependant on the help of family. The second regulation introduced in the late seventies was the One-Child Policy. This because the government of China began to see the great threat of the exponentially growing population. This phenomena I will explain in the next chapter. In the years 1991 and 1995 the government tried to reform the current PAYG system by creating a multi pillar system. (Vandendriessche, 2008) This system contained three pillars which all contributed to one overall pension fund. The first pillar was the basic pension for every employee of a company funded by the state. The second pillar was a individual fund which was filled during the years of work of each person. Frazier calls this Defined Contribution. The third pillar is optional, and is an additional payment made to the pension fund to increase the pension received later in the employees lives. But even with this new reformed pension funding, it is far from ideal. Chapter 4: How has this aging problem risen? Aging of population (also known as demographic aging, and population aging) is a summary term for shifts in the age distribution of a population toward older ages. Which is a direct consequence of the ongoing global fertility transition (decline) and of mortality decline at older ages. (Gavrilov and Heuveline,2003) These two factors can both be seen in the statistical yearbook of China. (Appendix 1) One of the factors, the mortality rate decline at older ages (See Appendix 1F), can be explained mainly by a better health care; more knowledge of the human body and better medicine (especially anti biotic). The New Rural Co-operative Medical Care System (NRCMCS) is an new project set up in the year two-thousand-five to improve the health care sector in China, especially to make it affordable for the rural area. (China daily, 2005) This NRCMCS covers around eighty percent of the total cost of the hospitals. Under the new policy, the central government, local governments, and individual farmers each invest 10 yuan (US$1.23) per year to establish a medical insurance account. The money accumulated is then used to fund hospital treatment. (China daily, 2005) Thought this initiative, many Chinese citizens are now covered for their medical insurance. Around eighty percent of all Chinese citizens living in the rural areas have signed up, which are approximately 685 million people. The second factor, the fertility rate is harder to explain. Deliberately decreasing the fertility rate has been an issue of the Chinese government since 1971. In 1970, the total fertility rate was 5.8. At the time of 1978, the fertility rate has decreased with fifty percent to 2.7. This due to the policy known as wan-xi-shao, meaning later marriages, longer spacing between children, and fewer children in total. Through 1979 the probability of a couple having a second child, given that they had already given birth to a first child, was 95 percent (Feeney and Yu, 1987). Chinas leaders where still worried because chinas baby-boomers where now reaching marriage age. These baby boomers where born in the years before this wan-xi-shao policy because of the Great Leap Forward. Chinas leaders thought these group of people would have to many children and this would outgrow the population carrying capacity. The One-Child policy was established as a law in 1980 by the former Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping. He implemented this law to limit the birth rate of China. This policy was instantly controversial because of it was strictly enhanced in the first years. There was for example a policy for mandatory insertion of intrauterine devices for women with one child and sterilization for couples with two or more children. At 1984, resistance (both nationally and internationally) has risen to a crucial level. The Chinese government relinquished these strict policies and the overall law loosened up. This mend for example that regional governments, especially in rural areas, a policy which allowed couples to have a second child when their first child was a girl. In more urban areas the One-Child Policy was maintained more strictly. But not only due to the one-child policy fertility rates has gone down. There are significant similarities between China and other surrounding Asian countries in their fertility rates. (See Appendix 1E) However, this has not the same reason is these countries. In some countries, notably Japan and Korea, the low birth rate may be partly attributable to rising job opportunities and earning power for women. But that is not the case in Taiwan, Singapore or Hong Kong, where women have excellent work opportunities and access to low-paid domestic help from Southeast Asia. There is a reluctance to marry, particularly among the better educated women, as well as a preference for few, if any, children. (Bowring, 2007) But because the Great Leap Forward in China, their fertility rate has risen in the years between 1955 and 1970. This in contrast with the other Asian countries shown in this graph (See Appendix 1E). Chapter 5: What are the difficulties which china is facing because of this problem? The most obvious problem China will face is the increasing group of elder people. According to Estelle James, In 1990 only nine percent of Chinas population was over the age of 65, bu by 2030 this proportion will more than double, to twenty-two percent. This means that more than a quarter of the elder people of the entire world will live in China by 2030. As you can see in Appendix the dependency ratio of elderly people in rural areas will be approximately 0.34 in 2030, and 0.18 in urban areas. Zeng et al. (2008) suggest that, if urbanization reaches 75%, the dependency ratio is likely to continue to rise rapidly in rural areas and may exceed 0.6 by 2050, versus just over 0.3 in urban areas. With such a high dependency ratio, a high contribution rate is required from working people to cover the current bill. The second problem is the gender imbalance in China. There is a huge surplus of men. At this moment there is are thirty-two million more Chinese boys than girls under the age of twenty. (NYTimes, 2009) These surplus of boys are known in China as guang guan. Together with the fact that not everyone will marry or have a child when the sex-ratio is normal, there will be a lot of elderly in the future who do not have children to support them and must rely on some sort of pension. Lin Jiang believes there will be almost four million elderly citizens in the rural area by 2030 who do not have a single child. The third problem is that the growth of the working age population will drop off quickly and reach zero growth after 2015. (see appendix) He calculated this because of The persistence of fertility and mortality rates combines with the existing structure of the population to produce predictable patterns of change of the labor force. Also According to Naughton, The labor market is just now absorbing the last huge birth cohort (the baby boom echo born in the late 1980s) The GDP rate per capita (appendix 2) is still increasing. However the rate of increasing is declining in the last two years. This in accordance with the future growth/ decline of the working age population a conclusion can be drawn that the growth of GDP rate per capita will also decline, not taken into account the growth of the economy. Therefore it is important to stimulate this growth of economy. This has to be reacted on in order to stop the rising burden on the currently employed after 2015, because of the change in population structure. Chapter 6: How do the Chinese old people deal with their longevity financially? It is difficult to ascertain exactly how other countries have financed the transition because of the fungibility of money and the ambiguity of the counterfactual. Most reforming countries in Latin America and Eastern Europe have utilized parametric changes that downsized bloated benefit obligations, to reduce the IPD and the financing gap. Beyond that, the following revenue sources appear to be common: Keeping part of the system PAYG, so contributions continue flowing into the PAYG pillaras in Poland, Hungary, Uruguay and Sweden; Raising revenues from contributions by increasing the payroll tax or the compliance rate-an add-on was used in OECD countries and most other countries are trying to decrease evasion; Using other special revenue sources such as a lottery or a value added tax (Argentina); Using general revenues or social security surpluses that are available at the municipal, provincial or state level (Chile); Applying proceeds from the sale of SOE assets to cover pension liabilities (assetdebt swaps)-SOE and pension reform were linked in Peru, Bolivia and Poland; Borrowing in the short run and repaying with the surplus that the system would run in the longer run, as the individual accounts take on a greater portion of the total pension responsibility (most countries have used this method to smooth the burden of transition costs over many cohorts). Most of these methods would be appropriate for China. China is now using proceeds from a national lottery, a tax on interest income and, as already discussed, direct allocations from the MOF. We concentrate here on a source that has just been tapped proceeds from the sale of state assets-and another source that is essential but has yet to be seriously addressedbenefit reduction. These two sources, between them, could cover much of the transition costs. References: Homan, T. R. (2009, June 18). World Bank Raises China 2009 Growth Forecast to 7.2%. Retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087sid=aoNG311GdSSk Naughton, B. (2007). The Chinese Economy: Transitions and growth. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England Vandendriessche, A. (2008) Hoe worden ouderen verzorgd in China? The Netherlands Frazier, M.W., After Pension Reform: Navigating the Third Rail in China, Studies in Comparative International Development 39:2 (2004), p. 48. Feeney, G., and Jingyuan Yu (1987) Period Parity Progression Measures of Fertility in China. Population Studies, 41(1): 77-102 Statistical yearbook of china Bureau of statistics Zeng, Y., Z. Wang, J. Leiwen and D. Gu (2008), Projection of Family Households and Elderly Living Arrangement in the Context of Rapid Population Aging in China, GENUS. Wang Feng (2005). Can China Afford to Continue Its One-Child Policy? AsiaPacific Issues, No. 77, March. Honolulu: East-West Center. Bowring, P. (2007) How Asians can have more babies. Retrieved from: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/18/opinion/18iht-edbowring.1.5768104.html?_r=1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-11/02/content_489869.htm Knag, 2007 : http://www.geografie.nl/index.php?id=640tx_ttnews[swords]=giscHash=2f4cd4ee67tx_ttnews[tt_news]=611tx_ttnews[backPid]=502 King, Frank H. (1911). Farmers of Forty Centuries. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press. Maddison, Angus (1998). Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Paris: Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Perkins, Dwight (1967). Government as an Obstacle to Industrialization: The Case of Nineteenth-Century China. Journal of Economic History, 27(4):478-92. Riskin, Carl (1975). Surplus and Stagnation in Modern China. In Dwight Perkins, ed., Chinas Modern Economy in Historical Perspective, 49-84. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Wang, Gabe T. (1999). Chinas Population: Problems, Thoughts and Policies, 6, 28-29, 38-39. Aldershot: Ashgate. http://www.chinability.com/GDP.htm ONeill, B. and S. Scherbov (2006), Interpreting UN Urbanization Projections Using a Multi-state Model, Interim Report IR-06-012. (NYTIMES, 2009) http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/11/world/asia/11china.html

Witches, Supernatural, and Evil in Shakespeares Macbeth :: GCSE English Literature Coursework

The Witches and  Evil in Macbeth    No discussion of evil in Shakespeare’s play Macbeth would be satisfactory without considering its’ most famous symbols of evil: the coven of witches whose interactions with Macbeth play such a vital role in his thinking about his own life. Banquo and Macbeth recognize them as something supernatural, part of the landscape but not fully human inhabitants of it. They have malicious intentions and prophetic powers. And yet they are not active agents in the sense that they do nothing other than talk and offer visions and potions. The witches have no power to compel. If we are to explore the significance of these witches we must do so by treating them as vital poetic symbols in the play, essential manifestations of the moral atmosphere of Macbeth's world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The most obvious interpretation of the witches is to see them as manifestations of evil in the world. They exist to tempt and torment people, to challenge their faith in themselves and their society. They work on Macbeth by equivocation, that is, by ambiguous promises of some future state. These promises come true, but not in the way that the victim originally believed. The witches thus make their appeal to Macbeth's and Banquo's desire to control their own future, to direct it towards some desirable ends. They have no power to compel belief, but they can obviously appeal strongly to an already existing inclination to force one's will onto events in order to shape the future to fit one deepest desires.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Banquo's importance in the play stems, in large part, from his different response to these witches. Like Macbeth, he is strongly tempted, but he does not let his desires outweigh his moral caution: But 'tis strange, And oftentimes to win us to our harm The instruments of darkness tell us truths, Win us with honest trifles to betray's In deepest consequence. (1.3.120-124)    Macbeth cannot act on this awareness because his desires (kept alive by his active imagination and his wife's urging) constantly intrude upon his moral sensibilities. Hence, he seizes upon the news that he has just been made Thane of Cawdor, using that information to tell him what he most wants to believe, that the witches tell the truth. This supernatural soliciting Cannot be ill, cannot be good. If ill, Why hath it given me earnest of success

Monday, August 19, 2019

Copper Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Weil 1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Copper is one of the earliest elements known to man. Because of its distinct red color, Copper is very easily identified. In the ancient times, copper could be found lying in the ground in its unattached state without interaction to other substances. Copper and its compounds have many uses in today’s society. Copper has many chemical properties that make it unique. The Atomic number of copper is 29. An Atomic number is a measure of the amount of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Protons are sub-atomic particles, which have a positive charge. The Atomic mass of copper is 63.546. The Atomic mass is a measure of how many neutrons and protons are in an atom. Neutrons are sub- atomic particles, which have no charge. Thus, using the Atomic mass and Atomic number of Copper, we can determine that it has 29 proton and 35 neutrons. Copper is a transition element and is found in column eleven of the periodic table. That means that it has 11 electrons in it valence shell. A valence shell of an atom is the last shell of electrons. Copper is a metal, which lies in period 4 of the Periodic table.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Other basic properties include having a density of 8.96grams/ centimeters3. Density is a measure of mass per unit of volume in a substance. Copper has a melting point of 1083.3 degrees Celsius. A melting point of a substance is the temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid. Also, the freezing point of Copper is 2567 degrees Celsius. The freezing point of substance is the temperature a liquid changes to a solid.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are also many physical properties of Copper including conductivity, malleability, ductility, and the resistance against corrosion. Conductivity is the ability to conduct electricity. Silver is the only better conductor of electricity, but it is too expensive. Pure copper is a better conductor of electricity than copper alloys, due to the impurities in the alloys. Copper is also Weil 2 very malleable. Malleability is the ability to be easily shaped. Copper doesn’t break when hammered, stamped, forged, or spun into unusual shapes. Copper can be shaped either in a hot or cold shape. Besides being easily shaped, Copper is dutiable. Ductility is the ability to be drawn into thin wires without breaking. When heated, Copper becomes very ... ...s its red color from the iron. The other substance, hemocryanin is the same as hemoglobin, except it uses copper instead of iron. Thus it has a blue color, instead of red. Examples of animals, which have hemocryanin, are crustaceans.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Copper is very numerous in nature. The metal ranks in the upper quarter of elements abundant in the earths crust. A small part can also be found in seawater. Copper is minded Weil 4 throughout the world; fifty nations mine it today. Some include Albania, Argentina, Peru, Russia, Zambia, and many more. The largest miners of copper are Chile and the United States. Other major producers include Canada, Australia, and Indonesia. Within the United States, the leading states of production include, Arizona, Utah, Montana, and Nevada.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Copper is essential to modern society. Its uses are numerous and essential to many animals. Since the discovery of Copper, it has been an integral part of industry, art, and agriculture. Today’s uses would not be possible if not for the discoveries many, many years ago.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Sunday, August 18, 2019

Natural Selection, Scale, and Cultural Evolution Essay -- Natural Selec

Evolution can be seen throughout all aspects of life, but for each aspect evolution does not occur in the same process. In his article entitled â€Å"Natural Selection, Scale, and Cultural Evolution,† Dunnell emphasizes and explains why evolution has made such a small impact on archaeology. Cultural evolution and biological evolution are not the same. Biological evolution uses theoretical propositions that explain the mechanisms of biological adaptation and evolution. The laws of cultural evolution â€Å"are not theoretical propositions but rather empirical generalizations† (Dunnell, 1996: 25). Cultural evolution does not explain the differences among the occurrences cultural phenomena. Dunnell’s main goal is to effectively formulate ways to integrate evolutionary characteristics and anthropological theory (Dunnell, 1996). Dunnell believed that evolutionary biology is a better method to explain evolution in cultural anthropology and archaeology rather than cultural evolution. The main problem with biological evolution is the dilemma of altruistic behavior in humans, which is the exact opposite of natural selection. Dunnell states that altruistic behavior is â€Å"the ultimate of the selfish principles† (Dunnell 1996: 26). The original solution to the issue of altruistic behavior was thought to be to change the scale of which natural selection works from that of the individual to the group. However, Dunnell gives three reasons why this change usually would not work. First, the individual, not the group, is the mean by which the reproductivity occurs. Second, the individual is the mean by which observable characteristics show themselves. Finally, changes in higher levels of ranking in society, such as that of the group, are too slow for ... ...a â€Å"culture† (Dunnell 1988). After a forty years absence, the cultural evolution method was revived in the mid-twentieth century. At first, many rejected the revival of this method, even though they were still using some aspects of the method, i.e. the stages of a cultures development. The twentieth century cultural evolution method differed from the earlier model in a few ways, but the main difference was in the definition of â€Å"progress.† During the nineteenth century, â€Å"progress† was broadly defined as â€Å"the betterment or similarity to modern European culture† (Dunnell, 1988; pg 176-177). During the twentieth century, however, â€Å"progress† took the definition of â€Å" the increase in the amount of energy captured by society† (Dunnell, 1988; pg 177). This simply means that the â€Å"least developed† cultures used less energy than â€Å"more developed† cultures (Dunnell, 1988).